individual differences and instructed language learning language learning and language teaching v
Individual Differences and Instructed Language Learning
Language learning is a complex and dynamic process that involves many factors, both internal and external to the learner. One of the most influential factors is individual differences, which refer to the variations among learners in terms of their cognitive, affective, social, and biological characteristics. Individual differences can have a significant impact on how learners acquire, process, store, and use a second or foreign language. Therefore, understanding individual differences is essential for both language learners and teachers, as it can help them optimize their learning and teaching experiences.
Introduction
In this article, we will explore the concept of individual differences in instructed language learning, which is the type of language learning that takes place in formal settings such as classrooms or online courses. We will first define what individual differences are and why they are important for language learning and teaching. Then, we will examine some examples of individual differences in language learners, focusing on two main categories: cognitive factors and affective factors. For each category, we will discuss three specific aspects that have been widely researched in the field of applied linguistics: intelligence, learning styles, and working memory for cognitive factors; and motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy for affective factors. For each aspect, we will explain its definition, its relation to language learning outcomes and strategies, and its implications for language teaching methods. Finally, we will conclude with some suggestions on how to address individual differences in instructed language learning.
What are individual differences?
Individual differences are the variations among learners in terms of their personal characteristics that may influence their language learning process. These characteristics can be divided into four broad categories: cognitive, affective, social, and biological. Cognitive factors refer to the mental abilities and processes that are involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using information. Affective factors refer to the emotions, attitudes, beliefs, values, and personality traits that affect learners' motivation, interest, confidence, and anxiety levels. Social factors refer to the interactions and relationships that learners have with other people, such as teachers, peers, family members, or native speakers. Biological factors refer to the physical attributes and conditions that may affect learners' health, energy, sensory perception, or brain functioning.
Why are individual differences important for language learning and teaching?
Individual differences are important for language learning and teaching because they can have a significant impact on how learners perceive, comprehend, remember, produce, and communicate in a second or foreign language. Individual differences can affect learners' preferences for different types of input (e.g., visual or auditory), output (e.g., speaking or writing), feedback (e.g., explicit or implicit), tasks (e.g., analytical or creative), and strategies (e.g., cognitive or metacognitive). Individual differences can also affect learners' goals, expectations, self-regulation, and self-evaluation of their language learning progress and performance. Furthermore, individual differences can influence how learners respond to different types of instruction, such as teacher-centered or learner-centered, deductive or inductive, structured or flexible, and so on.
Therefore, understanding individual differences can help language learners and teachers to identify their strengths and weaknesses, to adapt their learning and teaching styles, to select appropriate materials and methods, to monitor and evaluate their learning and teaching outcomes, and to enhance their learning and teaching effectiveness and efficiency.
What are some examples of individual differences in language learners?
There are many examples of individual differences in language learners, but in this article, we will focus on six aspects that have been widely researched in the field of applied linguistics: intelligence, learning styles, working memory, motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy. We will discuss each aspect in detail in the following sections.
Cognitive Factors
Intelligence
Definition and types of intelligence
Intelligence is one of the most controversial and debated concepts in psychology and education. There is no consensus on how to define or measure intelligence, but generally speaking, intelligence can be understood as the ability to acquire, process, apply, and create knowledge. There are different theories and models of intelligence, but one of the most influential ones is the theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Howard Gardner. According to Gardner, there are at least eight types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Each type of intelligence represents a different way of thinking and learning that can be developed and enhanced through education and experience.
Intelligence and language learning outcomes
The relationship between intelligence and language learning outcomes is complex and multifaceted. On the one hand, some studies have found a positive correlation between general intelligence or specific types of intelligence (such as linguistic or logical-mathematical) and language learning outcomes (such as proficiency or achievement). This suggests that learners with higher levels of intelligence may have an advantage in acquiring and using a second or foreign language. On the other hand, some studies have found no correlation or even a negative correlation between intelligence and language learning outcomes. This suggests that learners with lower levels of intelligence may not necessarily be disadvantaged in language learning, as they may compensate with other factors (such as motivation or strategies) or benefit from different types of instruction (such as communicative or task-based).
Intelligence and language learning strategies
The relationship between intelligence and language learning strategies is also complex and multifaceted. On the one hand, some studies have found a positive correlation between general intelligence or specific types of intelligence (such as linguistic or logical-mathematical) and language learning strategies (such as cognitive or metacognitive). This suggests that learners with higher levels of intelligence may use more effective and efficient strategies to acquire and use a second or foreign language. On the other hand, some studies have found no correlation or even a negative correlation between intelligence and language learning strategies. This suggests that learners with lower levels of intelligence may not necessarily use less effective or efficient strategies in language learning, as they may vary their strategy use according to their needs, goals, tasks, or contexts.
Learning Styles
Definition and dimensions of learning styles
Learning styles are the preferences that learners have for different ways of perceiving, processing, organizing, and retaining information. There are different theories and models of learning styles, but one of the most widely used ones is the model proposed by Richard Felder and Linda Silverman. According to Felder and Silverman, there are four dimensions of learning styles: sensory-intuitive, visual-verbal, active-reflective, and sequential-global. Each dimension represents a continuum between two opposite poles that describe how learners prefer to learn. For example:
Sensory learners prefer concrete facts and data; intuitive learners prefer abstract concepts and theories.
Visual learners prefer images and diagrams; verbal learners prefer words and sounds.
Active learners prefer doing and experimenting; reflective learners prefer thinking and observing.
Sequential learners prefer linear and logical steps; global learners prefer holistic and intuitive patterns.
Learners may have different preferences for each dimension depending on their personality traits, background knowledge, or situational factors.
Learning styles and language learning preferences
The relationship between learning styles and language learning preferences is intuitive and straightforward. Learning styles and language teaching methods
The relationship between learning styles and language teaching methods is complex and controversial. On the one hand, some researchers and educators advocate for matching teaching methods to learners' learning styles, as this may enhance learners' motivation, interest, comprehension, retention, and performance. For example, sensory learners may benefit from hands-on activities and demonstrations; intuitive learners may benefit from discussions and problem-solving tasks; visual learners may benefit from charts and videos; verbal learners may benefit from lectures and podcasts; active learners may benefit from group work and role-plays; reflective learners may benefit from journals and self-assessments; sequential learners may benefit from structured and explicit instruction; global learners may benefit from thematic and integrated projects.
On the other hand, some researchers and educators criticize the validity and reliability of learning style assessments, the generalizability and applicability of learning style theories, and the effectiveness and feasibility of matching teaching methods to learners' learning styles. They argue that learning styles are not fixed or stable traits, but rather dynamic and context-dependent states; that learning styles are not independent or isolated factors, but rather interrelated and interactive dimensions; that learning styles are not deterministic or prescriptive indicators, but rather descriptive and suggestive tendencies; and that learning styles are not exclusive or optimal preferences, but rather complementary and adaptable options. Therefore, they suggest that instead of matching teaching methods to learners' learning styles, teachers should vary their teaching methods to accommodate different learning styles, to challenge learners to develop their weaker styles, and to encourage learners to use multiple styles depending on their goals, tasks, or contexts.
Working Memory
Definition and components of working memory
Working memory is the cognitive system that allows us to temporarily store and manipulate information in our mind. Working memory is essential for many cognitive functions, such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and language processing. Working memory has a limited capacity and duration, which means that it can only hold a small amount of information for a short period of time. Working memory consists of four components: the central executive, the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. The central executive is the controller that regulates the attention and coordination of the other three components. The phonological loop is the component that stores and rehearses verbal information. The visuospatial sketchpad is the component that stores and manipulates visual and spatial information. The episodic buffer is the component that integrates information from different sources and formats into a coherent representation.
Working memory and language processing
The relationship between working memory and language processing is direct and significant. Working memory and language development
The relationship between working memory and language development is indirect and complex. On the one hand, some studies have found a positive correlation between working memory capacity and language proficiency or achievement. This suggests that learners with higher levels of working memory may have an advantage in acquiring and using a second or foreign language, as they can process and retain more information in their mind. On the other hand, some studies have found no correlation or even a negative correlation between working memory capacity and language proficiency or achievement. This suggests that learners with lower levels of working memory may not necessarily be disadvantaged in language learning, as they may compensate with other factors (such as motivation or strategies) or benefit from different types of instruction (such as simplified or scaffolded).
Affective Factors
Motivation
Definition and types of motivation
Motivation is one of the most influential and researched factors in language learning. Motivation can be defined as the desire and willingness to engage in a certain activity or to achieve a certain goal. Motivation can be divided into two main types: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to the motivation that comes from within the learner, such as interest, curiosity, enjoyment, or satisfaction. Extrinsic motivation refers to the motivation that comes from outside the learner, such as rewards, grades, praise, or pressure. Both types of motivation can affect learners' behavior, performance, and outcomes in language learning.
Motivation and language learning goals
The relationship between motivation and language learning goals is strong and consistent. Motivation can influence learners' choice, direction, intensity, and persistence of their language learning goals. For example, learners who are intrinsically motivated may choose to learn a language for personal or intellectual reasons; learners who are extrinsically motivated may choose to learn a language for instrumental or social reasons. Learners who are intrinsically motivated may set more challenging and specific goals; learners who are extrinsically motivated may set more realistic and general goals. Learners who are intrinsically motivated may invest more effort and time in their goals; learners who are extrinsically motivated may invest less effort and time in their goals. Learners who are intrinsically motivated may persist longer and overcome more obstacles in their goals; learners who are extrinsically motivated may give up sooner and avoid more difficulties in their goals.
Motivation and language learning behavior
The relationship between motivation and language learning behavior is also strong and consistent. Anxiety
Definition and sources of anxiety
Anxiety is one of the most common and detrimental factors in language learning. Anxiety can be defined as the feeling of nervousness, worry, fear, or apprehension that arises in response to a perceived threat or challenge. Anxiety can have various sources in language learning, such as personal factors (e.g., low self-esteem, perfectionism, or negative beliefs), situational factors (e.g., high stakes, time pressure, or unfamiliarity), or task factors (e.g., difficulty, complexity, or novelty). Anxiety can affect different aspects of language learning, such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation.
Anxiety and language learning performance
The relationship between anxiety and language learning performance is negative and complex. On the one hand, some studies have found a negative correlation between anxiety and language learning performance. This suggests that learners with higher levels of anxiety may have a disadvantage in acquiring and using a second or foreign language, as they may experience cognitive interference, emotional distress, or behavioral avoidance. On the other hand, some studies have found no correlation or even a positive correlation between anxiety and language learning performance. This suggests that learners with lower levels of anxiety may not necessarily have an advantage in language learning, as they may lack arousal, challenge, or feedback. Furthermore, some studies have suggested that the relationship between anxiety and language learning performance may depend on other factors, such as the type, level, or source of anxiety; the type, level, or mode of performance; or the type, level, or quality of instruction.
Anxiety and language learning coping strategies
The relationship between anxiety and language learning coping strategies is positive and adaptive. Coping strategies are the actions that learners take to manage or reduce their anxiety in language learning. Coping strategies can be divided into two main types: problem-focused and emotion-focused. Problem-focused coping strategies are those that aim to change or solve the source of anxiety, such as planning, organizing, rehearsing, or seeking help. Emotion-focused coping strategies are those that aim to regulate or relieve the emotion of anxiety, such as breathing, meditating, or positive thinking. Both types of coping strategies can be effective and beneficial for learners to overcome their anxiety and improve their language learning outcomes. However, some studies have suggested that problem-focused coping strategies may be more suitable for high-anxiety learners, as they can help them address the root cause of their anxiety and enhance their self-efficacy; whereas emotion-focused coping strategies may be more suitable for low-anxiety learners, as they can help them maintain their optimal level of arousal and motivation.
Self-Efficacy
Definition and sources of self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is one of the most important and positive factors in language learning. Self-efficacy can be defined as the belief that one has the ability and competence to perform a certain task or achieve a certain goal. Self-efficacy can have various sources in language learning, such as personal factors (e.g., prior knowledge, skills, or achievements), situational factors (e.g., feedback, support, or modeling), or task factors (e.g., difficulty, complexity, or relevance). Self-efficacy can affect different aspects of language learning, such as goals, strategies, performance, and outcomes.
Self-efficacy and language learning beliefs
The relationship between self-efficacy and language learning beliefs is positive and reciprocal. Language learning beliefs are the opinions or assumptions that learners have about themselves, others, or the nature of language learning. Language learning beliefs can influence learners' self-efficacy, as they can shape their expectations, attributions, or evaluations of their language learning ability and competence. For example, learners who believe that language learning is innate or fixed may have low self-efficacy; learners who believe that language learning is acquired or malleable may have high self-efficacy. Conversely, self-efficacy can influence learners' language learning beliefs, as it can affect their perceptions, attitudes, or values toward themselves, others, or the nature of language learning. For example, learners who have high self-efficacy may believe that they are capable and confident in language learning; learners who have low self-efficacy may believe that they are incompetent and insecure in language learning.
Self-efficacy and language learning outcomes
The relationship between self-efficacy and language learning outcomes is positive and consistent. can influence learners' language learning outcomes, such as proficiency, achievement, or satisfaction. Self-efficacy can affect learners' language learning outcomes directly, as it can enhance their performance and quality in language tasks and tests. Self-efficacy can al